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How the Language Really Works:
The Fundamentals of Critical Reading and Effective Writing
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Beginning, Middle And End Model: Changes In Topic

The Relationship Model

The Rhetorical Model

The Role Model

The Task Model

Descriptive Formats: Ways to Describe a Discussion

Beginning, Middle And End Model: Changes In Topic

The simplest way to describe a text is in terms of a beginning, middle, and an end. In writing class, teachers often speak of texts having an introduction, body, and conclusion.

The parts of a text do not have to be of the same length, and may not necessarily coincide with paragraph divisions. You can determine a beginning, middle and end only after having read the complete text. Many shifts that you note in your initial reading will seem minor once you get further into the text. What you take as the main idea in the early paragraphs you may come to see later as merely the catalyst for the discussion, or as a viewpoint refuted later in the discussion. Section headings may guide you, but critical readers verify that such headings adequately describe the text.

How should you distinguish between parts in deciding on a beginning, middle and end? The most obvious shifts are changes in topic. The discussion might shift in terms of discussing
  • parts of a whole, one after another
  • steps in a sequence, such as large to small, major to minor
  • different time periods (chronological order)
  • steps in a logical argument
  • alternative conditions or circumstances
  • shifts in viewpoint or perspective
Note that parts need not be equal in length. One part may include a single sentence, another part five paragraphs. The point is not to divide the whole equally, but to divide it into units that recognize major features of the presentation as a whole.

Finally, note that this model can be expanded to lower levels of analysis:
  • beginning of discussion
  • middle: main argument
    • beginning of main argument
    • middle of main argument
    • end of main argument
  • end of discussion
The act of isolating a beginning, middle, and end of a discussion, by itself, doesn't tell us very much. But the effort can help you see the content more clearly. The activity of trying to divide the text into major parts may be the first step in seeing the content in detail.

The Relationship Model

Statements, and hence ideas, are usually related to each other in one of the following ways:
  • sequence or series
    a listing of similar items, often in a distinct order, whether in terms of location, size, importance, etc.
  • time order/chronology : a series of events in order of occurrence
  • general/specific relationship: examples and generalizations
  • comparison
    similarity
    difference (contrast)
  • logical relationships
    reason/conclusion,
    cause/effect,
    conditional relationship between factors
These relationships are usually signaled by an appropriate term, such as one of the following:
  • sequence or series:
    next, also, finally, lastly, then, secondly, furthermore, moreover
  • time order/chronology :
    before, after, then, since, soon, until, when, finally
  • general/specific relationship:
    examples, such as, overall, for instance, in particular
  • comparison
    • similarities
      similarly, like, in the same way, likewise
    • differences (contrast):
      however, unlike, otherwise, whereas, although, however, nevertheless, still, yet
    logical relationships
    • indicating reason/conclusion, cause/effect, and/or a conditional relationship between factors:
      hence, because, if, therefore, so, since, as a consequence, in conclusion
These relationship concepts and terms can be used to discuss connections between paragraphs or larger sections of a text, as well as the relationship of patterns of content or language throughout a text. A particular fact may serve as a reason for a certain conclusion, a cause for a given effect, or an example for a generalization. An assertion isn't a reason, after all, until it is used as the basis for reaching a conclusion. An assertion doesn't necessarily specify a cause until you assert an effect resulting from it. And any single sentence can be, at once, both a conclusion for the preceding discussion and an assumption for the following one.

The Rhetorical Model

An alternative model looks at the rhetorical nature of remarks. This model uses categories such as the following:
  • definition : indicating what a term means
  • explanation : discussing what an idea means
  • description : indicating qualities, ingredients, or appearance
  • narration : recounting events
  • elaboration : offering details
  • argumentation : reasoning, or otherwise defending an idea
  • evaluation : judging or rating
In very general terms, we argue and evaluate positions, define and explain concepts, describe objects, and narrate events. Aspects of any or all may appear anywhere in a discussion.

Recall the observation that relatively specific remarks tend to support other remarks by offering description, reasons, or examples. This model describes that process.

The Role Model

A text can also be examined according to the roles different portions play within the discussion. Roles might include:
  • Raise an initial idea, topic, or question
  • Shape the scope or direction of the discussion
  • Discuss and/or explain an idea
  • Conclude the idea or otherwise draw elements together
  • Add material for emphasis, clarification, or purposes of persuasion,
Remarks carrying out these roles can be found throughout a discussion, at all levels of analysis.

The Task Model

The final model presented here reflects tasks that different elements fulfill within a discussion.

What has to be shown to reach a particular conclusion? What evidence is required? What authorities would be applicable? What assumptions must be made? Whether we are trying to shape our own thoughts or evaluate the effectiveness of a presentation, we can attempt to determine the ingredients necessary to make a certain point.

To show a lie, for instance, we have to indicate a statement that contradicts the speaker's beliefs, and that the speaker intended to deceive. Without these specific elements, we might simply have someone misspeaking, more a case of ignorance than deceit.

We might think of this model somewhat in the way we think of recipes. Recipes indicate not only the ingredients, but also how they are mixed, not only what to include, but also what to do. Recipes indicate steps to be accomplished and the ingredients with which each step is executed.



Related Topics
A Variety of Descriptive Formats

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Inference
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Ways to Read
Grammar


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